The tension between concealment and identity occurring throughout Restoration drama arises from the presence of masks and masquerading.  The purpose of a mask extends beyond revealing or concealing; it constructs identity.  Since primal emotion can be feigned with a mask, actors of British drama in the 18^th century could artificially change their character’s persona.  The Country Wife, Love’s Last Shift, and The Relapse focus on how masks create deception.  These plays use masks, vizards, and personas as an extension of identity.  Depending on each character’s motivations, masking will produce either triumphant or damaging outcomes.
         
Charles Le Brun (1619-1690), a French painter and designer during the last half of the 17th century, influenced the conveyance of emotion in Restoration theater.  Possessing incredible artistic abilities, he was most famous for his paintings.  Le Brun also studied facial expressions and sketched countenances that typified certain emotions.  His caricatures were renowned, and thus would have been recognized by an audience of Restoration drama.  Actors studied his drawings and employed expressions with which the spectators would identify. Members of Restoration theater applied Le Brun's sketches to form masks out of their own faces.  Le Brun enabled human emotion to be depicted as a mask.  These universal definitions facilitated recognition by the audience; ergo, Charles Le Brun helped enhance the use of masks in plays.

Anne M. Cooke in “Eighteenth Century Acting Styles” examines the techniques of David Garrick, Mrs. Siddons, and Edmund Kean because they were the most popular actors of their era.  She concludes that they were a favorite of audiences because of their ability to convey emotion.  At this point in time, sentimentalism prevailed throughout art, literature, and theater.  There seemed to be an overall increase in awareness about feelings.  Cooke writes,

                   As romanticism gained ground and assurance toward the end of the century, the interest in the feelings deepened into an

                   expression of real human emotions and the more turbulent passions. (Cooke 220) 

In response to the popularity of emotion in drama, writers insisted upon a greater exhibition of feeling from their actors.  Cooke’s article is relevant to the topic of masks in Restoration drama.  As a result of Charles Le Brun’s work, audiences could already associate masks with certain human emotion.  Since the expression of feelings was so significant during this period, the use of masks would also have been imperative for the theater. 

In “The Interpretation of Facial Expression,” Dallas E. Buzby, a professor at the University of Pennsylvania, focuses upon the scientific work of Boring and Titchener.  These scientists studied facial expressions and focused on subjects’ abilities to identify emotion.  Using sketches by Pideret, they found that anger was often mistaken as pleased, bewildered, contemptuous, amazed or disdainful.  These emotions seem to have obscure lines of distinction.  A dismayed face was almost always labeled as attentive, and mistaken as quizzical or bewildered less often.  Overall, their “percentages of correct judgment are: Horrified, 60; Disdainful, 37; Disgusted, 53; and Bewildered, 37” (Buzby 603).  Boring and Titchener also found that women were better judges of emotion.  Misreading one’s emotions may lead to unfortunate consequences.  With respect to Restoration drama, audiences had to correctly read actors in order to gain appropriate information about a play.  The use of constructed masks facilitated the interactions between actors and spectators.  Le Brun’s work immensely improved the communication of facial expressions.

William Wycherly’s The Country Wife includes abundant references to masks or masquerades, which demonstrate how disguising or concealing a face can influence societal position.  Whenever a mask is mentioned, there is a connection with one of the following themes: beauty or honor.  Both concepts, which define identity, are based on surface appearances.  Masks, used to deceive society’s judgment, illustrate how beauty and honor can be manipulated.  Even though one may lack these two characteristics, a false covering can alter their position in the community.  By providing the chance to possess beauty or honor, masks interfere with the designated roles in society.

Females ranging from hideous to beautiful can always increase their appeal with a mask.  Pinchwife, fearful of being cuckolded, rejects the idea of masking his wife when she wants to venture out in public.  He believes that a masked woman becomes more alluring than any attractive one because curiosity acts as an aphrodisiac.  In “Gender and Sexuality at the Masquerade,” Amy Hees asserts that

                   Because the masquerade focused on the disguise of identity, the face was often hidden and the body emphasized
                   Masks were particularly significant as aphrodisiacs: ‘conventional wisdom held that someone donning a mask, especially
                   a woman, experienced an abrupt loss of sexual inhibition.’ Since a mask provided detachment from identity, it provided
                   a sort of detachment from traditional morality, as well. (Hees 1)

Even an ugly female becomes desirable in a mask.  Pinchwife argues that masked faces have produced more cuckolds than pretty faces.  Explaining his reasoning to Alithea, Pinchwife exclaims, “a woman masked, like a covered dish, gives a man curiosity and appetite, when, it may be, uncovered, ‘twould turn his stomach” (III.i.117-119).  He does not want to give his wife this sexual power by allowing her to wear a mask.  Alithea assents and adds, “a beauty masked, like the sun in eclipse, gathers together more gazers than if it shined out” (III.i.121-123).  Both characters agree that masks defraud society about appearance.  Alithea, however, reframes Pinchwife’s argument by referring to beauty.  In this scene of The Country Wife, both beautiful and unattractive women are credited with using masks to change their visages.  A mask or visor, therefore, represents an object of deceit because it facilitates the invention of beauty or sexuality.  Furthermore, a positively altered appearance enhances one’s image in society.  Therefore, masks damage the overall value and significance of beauty.  It is the opinion of society that a covered face enhances one’s beauty and sexuality, and thus, Pinchwife forbids his wife from ever donning this accessory.

In addition to augmenting one’s physical appeal, a disguised face enables the preservation of honor.  Lady Fidget and her female friends allow themselves to be seen at Mr. Horner’s house because he has the reputation of being a eunuch.  Despite the fallacy of this rumor, the town believes the tale of Horner’s impotency.  He is not a sexual threat, and therefore, it is socially acceptable for women to be alone in his house.  Even though these females are neither honorable nor moral wives, the community still believes that they possess this trait, which ironically enables them to keep their honor.  When Pinchwife, a man capable of engaging in heterosexual intercourse, enters Mr. Horner’s house, Lady Fidget departs in order to preserve her reputation.  Even though she is accompanied by her husband, she comprehends that this social situation jeopardizes her honor.  She announces, “Oh Lord, here’s a man.  Sir Jaspar!  My mask, my mask.  I would not be seen here for the world” (IV.iii.252-253).  She immediately seeks cover by concealing her face with a mask.  She obscures her countenance so society cannot recognize her identity.  Without identification, her character cannot be judged.  Identity is crucial for determining social position.  This explains why masks, which prevent recognition, contain incredible importance in Restoration drama.  Wycherly’s references to masks illustrate how those who commit dishonorable deeds can still preserve their honor.  Using a vizard or mask for disguise conceals identity, which suffices to preserve one’s honor in the community.

A masked face remains an honorable face, which decreases inhibitions and augments sexual activity.  Lady Fidget and her followers coordinate a masquerade party at Horner’s residence, which is socially acceptable because of his reputation.  Each woman arrives at the party with her face covered.  Since their identities remain secret, they engage in immoral activities without threatening their honorable reputations.  As the women consume more alcohol, however, they no longer need the barrier of a mask for protection.  Alcohol assuages a guilty conscience.  Without these inhibitions, face-coverings are no longer necessary.  For example, when the doors are locked and the company becomes slightly intoxicated, Dainty exclaims, “Well, in token of our openness and plain dealing, let us throw our masks over our heads” (V.iv.44-45).  Alcohol has enabled the presence of candidness.  Once these costumes are discarded, the conversation becomes more intimate and Horner and his guests begin to discuss their reputations.  Lady Fidget admits she manipulates her own face in public into a mask.  Her praiseworthy actions are meant to deceive society.  Mrs. Squeamish consents and confesses to Horner “that [the] demureness, coyness, and modesty that you see in our faces in the boxes at plays is as much a sign of a kind woman as a vizard-mask in the pit” (V.iv.113-116).  Mrs. Squeamish labels herself a “kind woman,” one who will readily indulge in sexual favors.  She explains that her modest face, a mask necessary to high society, expresses the same intentions as those women who mask themselves to delineate their positions as prostitutes.  Each woman unanimously agrees with Mrs. Squeamish’s statement and explains that she wears invisible masks to appear honorable to society.  Masquerading at Horner’s residence will not ruin the honor of these women, and therefore they use him without fear of repercussion.  Lady Fidget summarizes their scheme when she says,

Though we get no presents, no jewels of [Mr. Horner], we are savers of our honor, the jewel of most value and use, which shines yet to the world unsuspected, though it be counterfeit. (1095) 

The author’s use of masks in The Country Wife demonstrates how disguising one’s face can preserve a reputation of honor. 

William Wycherly insinuates that an ugly appearance or dishonorable character will not automatically condemn one to the fate of a social pariah.  Clever or strategic use of a mask can either enhance attractiveness or protect a reputation.  The Country Wife indicates that beauty and honor are defined and judged by the opinions of society.  Since both concepts are also based on surface appearances, a mask can alter one’s beauty or honor.  The theme of disguising one’s appearance is consistent with other plays from the Restoration Era.  Wycherly, however, rewards deceit because his masked characters benefit from their vizards.  Love’s Last Shift and The Relapse also focus on deceitfulness; however, these plays illustrate the repercussions of feigning one’s identity.

The conflict in Love’s Last Shift; or, The Fool in Fashion consists of the clash between vicious and unadulterated love.  Sir Novelty Fashion and his mistress Mrs. Flareit represent the negative dichotomy of love, while Amanda and Loveless exemplify the revival of virtue.  Each side exploits a mask for disguise, but this method only benefits Amanda.  Since innocent love triumphs over the dishonorable, Colley Cibber rejects the association between masks and evil intentions.  Instead, the author advocates this accessory as a means to purify a relationship.

Foppish Sir Novelty Fashion discards both clothing and women according to the trend, which incites the pride of his mistress.  Snubbed by her lover, Mrs. Flareit vows revenge in order to soothe her pride rather than her affection.  To accomplish her goal, she masks herself so Fashion will mistake her as the adored Narcissa.  In this instance, a mask is used as an accomplice to deceit.  Even though she desires to appease her jealously, Fashion does not cooperate with her plan.  By masking herself, Mrs. Flareit directly exposes herself to his criticisms.  Instead of achieving comfort, her trickery leads to the confirmation of her lover’s hatred.  Her plan backfires, which indicates that masks used for ill intentions will lead to negative consequences.
 

The society in Love’s Last Shift is enthralled by appearance, and therefore, a mask used for deceit disrupts perceptions.  Appearances are important because they are used to describe, recognize, and judge other members in the community.  For example, when the Worthy brothers, Amanda, Narcissa, and Hillaria promenade through St. James’s Park, their discussion consists solely of public facades.  Each passerby is labeled and critiqued.  In reference to the Countess of Incog, Young Worthy declares, “She seldom changes, for she is never out of a mask and is so well known in’t that when she has a mind to be private she goes barefaced” (III.ii.172-174).  His comment indicates that the public places a high value of importance on one’s countenance.  Worthy and his companions do not define their peers based on personalities, actions, or accomplishments, but rather by their physical appearances.  When one wishes to deceive society, this can be done by either donning or removing a mask.  Therefore, when Mrs. Flareit dupes Sir Fashion and her plan miscarries, the author demonstrates the negative outcomes of ill-intentioned deceit.  Physical exteriors, which are an important tool of assessment for society, should not be carelessly altered by a mask.

Unlike Mrs. Flareit, Amanda uses deception in order to save her relationship.  Unwilling to compromise her virtue, Amanda wears a mask to entice her adulterous husband.  Young Worthy explains her husband’s actions and devises a plan.  He convinces Amanda to participate by revealing,

                   You know, madam, ‘twas not above four or five months after you were married but
                   (as   most young husbands do) he grew weary of you.  Now, I am confident ‘twas
                                                                                 more an affectation of being fashionably vicious than any reasonable dislike he could
                                                                                 either find in your mind or person.  Therefore, could you, by some  artifice, pass upon
                                                                                 him as a new mistress, I am apt to believe you  would find none of the wonted coldness
                                                                                 in his love but a younger heat and fierce desire.  (I.i.495-504)

The purpose of her façade is to expose Loveless to his own delusions.  More importantly, she can feign another identity but still maintain her virtue.  If successful, the masked Amanda can prove that Loveless is capable of lusting for his wife.  Wearing a mask will enable her to entice her husband as a lover rather than a wife.  Similar to the opinions of Pinchwife in The Country Wife, Loveless believes that novelty acts as an aphrodisiac. Wives, on the other hand, are like “an eternal apple tree” because they represent monotony (I.i.54).  Ergo, Amanda cannot entice her husband without this device, which indicates that married women lack intrigue.  A mask enables Amanda, and other females, to possess variety, thus appealing to multiple tastes.  Furthermore, the emphasis of disguise correlates to the importance of appearance in Love’s Last Shift.  Cibber seems to suggest that masks should only be used in deceit to restore honorable love. 

Amanda recognizes the deceitfulness of her actions and this concern amplifies her respect for morals.  She struggles with her task, but is able to justify her deception as a restoration of virtue between husband and wife.  Before the critical moment Loveless’s revelation, she cries,

Thus far my hopes have all been answered, and my disguise of vicious love has charmed him ev’n to a madness of impure desire.  But now I tremble to pull off the mask lest barefaced virtue should fright him from my arms forever. (V.ii.1-5)       

Her statement epitomizes the struggle between polluted and pure love.  Amanda hopes that when she removes her mask, Loveless will retreat back towards his feelings of disgust.  She needs to restore her husband’s virtue while maintaining her own.  Unlike Mrs. Fareit’s scheme, Amanda deceitfully employs a mask and gains success.  Her ploy enlightens her husband to the errors of his actions.  In this instance, even though Amanda fraudulently alters her appearance with a mask, she experiences victory.  Utilizing a mask to revive virtue, therefore, is acceptable in Love’s Last Shift.

The Relapse, a comical satire by John Vanbrugh, borrows the characters and minor plot lines from Cibber’s Love’s Last Shift in order to develop a sequel.  This continuation also uses masks to expose the folly of human desires.  Both Squire Thomas Fashion and Amanda deceptively alter their appearance.  Similar to Cibber’s play, Vanbrugh values the perpetuation of virtue.  Even though Amanda masks to fool her husband, her espionage does not damage her morals.  The author approves of her deceit in this instance, evident because her character is not punished.  When Fashion adopts a disguise, he defrauds multiple people and still triumphs at the conclusion of the play.  He misrepresents his identity but does not utilize a mask.  Despite creating a deceitful situation, Fashion is still rewarded by the author.  This example revokes traditional tropes of masks, and therefore, mask use in The Relapse is unique compared to the other two plays.

Similar to her actions in Love’s Last Shift, Amanda disguises her countenance in response to her husband’s infidelity.  In a conspiracy to weaken Amanda’s virtue, Berinthia confirms the existence of Loveless’s mistress.  She baits Amanda by saying

And if you’ll give me your word that you’ll be content with seeing [the mistress] masked in his hand without pulling her head-clothes off, I’ll step immediately to the person from whom I have my intelligence and send you word whereabouts you may stand to see ‘em meet. (V.ii.192-197)

Berinthia does not reveal the entire truth because she is the love interest, which explains why she takes so many preliminary precautions.  In order to fool Amanda, Berinthia masks herself and arranges a meeting with Loveless.  Amanda also disguises her visage, which further complicates the situation.  Both women are disguised, so neither woman represents herself honestly in this scheme.

When Amanda witnesses the execution of Berinthia’s act, she realizes that her husband has relapsed back into an adulterer.  Ironically, Amanda laments, “At last I am convinced. / My eyes are testimonies of his falsehood” (V.iv.16-17).  The prevalence of disguise throughout The Relapse suggests that one should never trust their eyes for evidence, which is why Amanda’s statement contains irony.  Since she embraces the use of masks, she should realize the possibility of deception.  Amanda observes her husband with her lover, but fails to realize the identity of the mistress.  Naive Amanda has been blinded by her cousin’s scheme.  Even though Berinthia intended for her cousin to abandon virtue, Amanda’s character does not weaken after this event.  Similar to Cibber, Vanbrugh maintains Amanda’s strong virtues.  Even the deception of a mask cannot deteriorate this woman’s morals.

Born as the younger male, Fashion does not inherit his own fortune, which leaves him dependent upon his brother for monetary aid.  When Sir Novelty Foppington rejects his younger brother, Fashion devises a scheme to steal his rich fiancée.  By pretending to be his brother, Fashion misrepresents his true identity.  Even though he does not use a mask, this plotline in The Relapse is consistent with a larger theme.  Feigning one’s identity through the manipulation of appearance occurs throughout Restoration dramas.  Acting as an imposter, Fashion accomplishes his goal.  He secretly weds his brother’s bride, but even though his prize is delayed, Vanbrugh chooses not to condemn this traitorous character.  Lord Foppington is portrayed with such disdain that the lying Fashion seems justified in his deceit.  Fashion’s fate in The Relapse is unique because he is rewarded even though he possesses ill intentions.  Unlike Mrs. Flareit, he emerges victorious.  This outcome, therefore, reverses the typical role of masks.  The sequel disobeys Cibber’s intentions in Love’s Last Shift.

The Country Wife, Love’s Last Shift, and The Relapse all emphasize the construction or concealment of identity.  Both the work by Charles Le Brun and the talented actors of the Restoration Era aided audiences’ understanding of plays involving masks.  Studies by Boring and Titchener revealed the confusion of interpreting emotion, which strengthens the significance of Le Brun’s efforts. Whether these Restoration plays are read or watched, the presence of masks is apparent.  In The Country Wife, Love’s Last Shift, and The Relapse, vizards or personas affect beauty, honor, or deceit.  The prevalence of surface appearance and societal positions further augment the role of the mask.  As an extension of identity, masks are a powerful tool for manipulation in Restoration comedies.